Female - Herbs and Dysmenorrhea by Paul Bergner Medical Herbalism 10-31-97 9(3): 5-15 Mild to severe menstrual discomfort or other disorders of the menstrual cycle are among the most common medical conditions in North America. The normal menstrual cycle can vary from 21-35 days, with a duration of flow from 2-9 days, and a 30-60 ml blood loss (1-2 ounces). Disorders of the cycle can be due to the length of the cycle, length (or lack of) menstrual flow, and the amount of the flow. Medical terms and definitions for abnormal menstruation appear in the accompanying box. Terminology for menstrual pathologies Dysmenorrhea: painful menstruation, with cramping. Menorrhagia: Excessive menstrual bleeding lasting longer than 7 days or blood loss exceeding 80 ml (2 2/3 ounces). Hypomenorrhea: Scanty menstrual flow (less than 1 ounce) Metrorrhagia: Irregular uterine bleeding. Polymenorrhea: Episodes of menstrual bleeding occurring at less than 21 day intervals Ethnobotanical
and folk remedies abound for painful menstruation
(dysmenorrhea) and excessive
menstrual bleeding (menorrhagia), but treatment
for the other conditions
listed in the box do not appear in most folk
literature. As many as 75%
of women experience pain during menstruation at
some time in their lives,
and 5-6% have incapacitating pain. The
conventional treatment is pain-relieving
medications, and, sometimes, birth control pills
to prevent ovulation.
Medical researchers today think that an imbalance
of prostaglandins are
responsible for menstrual pain. Prostaglandins in
the lining of the uterus
may be responsible for the cramping of the uterine
muscles. Aspirin, acetaminophen,
ibuprofen and many other pain-relieving
medications inhibit the synthesis
of prostaglandins, and this could explain why they
also relieve some cases
of menstrual cramps. Many herbs traditionally used
for painful menstruation
contain constituents that also inhibit
prostaglandins. Ginger, (Zingiber
off.) perhaps the most widely used
emmenagogue in folk medicine, contains
at least eight such constituents
(10-dehydrogingerdione, 10-gingerdione,
6-dehydrogingerdione, 6-gingerdione, 6-gingerol,
curcumin, p-coumaric-acid,
quercetin [Beckstrom-Sternberg and Duke, 1994]).
Other traditional plants
for dysmenorrhea, including cinnamon (Cinnamomum
verum),basil (Ocimum
basilicum), American pennyroyal (Hedeoma
pulegioides), yarrow
(Achillea millefolium), tansy (Tanacetum
vulgare), juniper
berry (Juniperus communis), and chamomile
(Matricaria chamomile)
each contain prostaglandin-inhibiting
constituents (Beckstrom-Sternberg
and Duke, 1994). Although the plants themselves
have not been tested for
pain-relieving activity, it is possible that these
constituents are responsible
for some of the effect observed in folk medicine.
If prostaglandin-inhibition
is a key action for relieving cramps, other
natural therapies that promote
prostaglandin balance, such as supplementation
with magnesium or essential
fatty acids, may be helpful. A common topic in folk medicine as well as contemporary herbal texts is “delayed menstruation,” often listed hand-in-hand with painful menstruation, and the two pathologies, like the herbs that treat them, may overlap. “Delayed menstruation” in such literature refers to a brief delay of the normal period, within the normal limits above, in a woman who knows that she is not pregnant. Alternative systems of medicine such as Chinese, Ayurvedic, and Arabic consider that menstruation may be painful or slightly delayed due to a condition described in Chinese medicine as “stagnant blood.” An equivalent description in modern physiology would be deficient circulation to the uterine lining. The chief causes of “stagnation” described by traditional systems are lack Of exercise and exposure to cold weather. Spasm of the uterine muscle may also reduce flow, perhaps explaining the common overlap in traditional medicine between herbs for dysmenorrhea and emmenagogues that increase menstrual flow. Emmenagogues and dysmenorrhea Each of the herbs described above is described in folkloric or alternative medicine as a treatment for both menstrual cramps and for delayed menstruation (See Table 1). They are warming, spicy herbs that increase peripheral blood flow, causing flushing of the skin, and promoting menstruation. Their antispasmodic constituents may promote menstruation by relieving uterine muscle spasm as well. A computer search of a U.S. Department of Agriculture database of medicinal plants for antispasmodic activity in medicinal plants turns up a number of the traditional emmenagogue herbs. A cluster of antispasmodic plant constituents — borneol, bornyl-acetate, limonene, and caryophyllene — appears in most of the plants in Tables 1 and 2, and each of the plants also contains a number of other antispasmodic constituents (See Table 2, appended at end of footnotes). Although these constituents, when extracted from plants and tested individually, have antispasmodic properties, the plants themselves have not been tested in trials for menstrual cramps. It is possible that the cumulative or synergistic effect of such constituents explains their traditional use for cramps as well as for promoting menstrual flow. Plants used in folk medicine for both menstrual cramps and delayed menstruation Plant Regions of folk use Ginger New England (Zingiber off.) Amish New York Indiana Tansy Southwest (Tanacetum
vulgare)
New England
Juniper Colonial American (Juniperus communis) Ancient Egypt Pennyroyal Native American (Hedeoma spp.) New England Southwest Chamomile Colonial American (Matricaria recutita) 19th century German immigrants Indiana Southwest Basil Southwest (Ocimum basilicum) China Yarrow Worldwide (Achillea millefolium) Cinnamon Chinese (Cinnamomum verum) Eclectics Sources:
Beckstrom-Sternberg and Duke; Felter; Hsu; Janos;
Leung; McGrath; Meyer;
Moore; Roeder; Tyler
Cramp bark, Black haw Two species of the viburnum genus, cramp bark (Viburnum opulus) and black haw (Viburnum prunifolium), have been used in Native American medicine for menstrual pain and other types of spasmodic pain. The Cherokee, Delaware, Fox, and Ojibwa all used cramp bark, with the Delaware employing it specifically for menstrual pain. Both plants were used for menstrual pain or delayed menses in Thompsonian, Physiomedicalist, and Eclectic medicine. The
two species are used interchangeably in
contemporary herbalism, but some
differentiation may be made between them on the
basis of prior medical
use as well as on their constituent profile. The
Physiomedicalist William
Cook wrote in 1868 that V. opulus is primarily an
antispasmodic, acting
on the nervous system (Cook). V. prunifolium,
according to Cook,
is more useful as a uterine tonic for uterine
weakness, prolapse, leukorrhea,
and passive bleeding. Fifty years later, the
Eclectic Harvey Felter wrote
that both plants may be used as antispasmodics and
tonics, but that V.
opulus has stronger antispasmodic
properties (Felter). Felter considered
V. prunifolium to be one of the most
important of the uterine tonics,
saying that it was used as such “oftener than any
other drug.” The Eclectic
Finley Ellingwood agrees with Felter and suggests
the prunifolium species
as the best tonic, and V. opulus as
having superior antispasmodic
properties (Ellingwood). The two viburnum root barks have similar constituents, except that catechin and epicatechin are present in V. prunifolium but not in V. opulus. Arbutin, salicin, and salicylic acid have been found in V. prunifolium (Duke, 1992), but not in V. opulus. Both plants contain the antispasmodic constituents esculetin and scopoletin. Both of these are soluble in alcohol, more so in hot alcohol, and insoluble in water. Note: Scopoletin is also present in the traditional Chinese emmenagogue and antispasmodic dang gui (Angelica sinensis), and is sometimes prepared with hot alcohol, i.e. heated after being sprinkled with rice wine. See “Dang gui” below. The chief therapeutic error made when treating acute severe menstrual cramps is to underdose, both in the size of the dose and its frequency. The German author R.F. Weiss suggests minimum doses of 20-30 drops, and a maximum of a teaspoon (Weiss). Doses may be repeated every several hours. Ellingwood suggests 20 drops every hour. Raspberry leaf In contemporary North American and European medical herbalism, raspberry leaf (Rubus ideaus) is probably the most famous of the “women’s” herbs. It is used as a tonic for the uterus, treatment for menstrual cramps, excessive menstrual bleeding, preparation for labor, and for female infertility. The leaf has been used in Europe for nourishment during pregnancy and preparation for delivery since ancient times, and is still mentioned for these purposes today in North America in the folk medicine of the Amish (McGrath, 1985) and of the Hispanic Southwest (Moore, 1990). The Chippewa, Cherokee, Iroquois, Kwakiutl, and Quinalt tribes have all used raspberry leaf or related rubus species as gynecological medicines (See Table 3) (Beckstrom-Sternberg et al, 1995). Table 3 Rubus species in Native American gynecological ethnomedicine Plant part preparation use tribe Rubus allegheniensis root infusion miscarriage Chippewa Rubus idaeus leaf decoction labor pains Cherokee unspecified infusion menstrual pain Cherokee unspecified decoction “period sickness” Iroquois Rubus occidentalis leaf decoction labor pains Cherokee unspecified infusion menstrual pain Cherokee
root
decoction
“female weakness” Chippewa
plant infusion miscarriage Iroquois unspecified infusion labor pains Cherokee Rubus parviflorus leaf unspecified prolonged period Kwakiutl Rubus spectabilis bark decoction labor pains Quinault root decoction labor pains Quinalt Source: Beckstrom-Sternberg et al, 1995 A 1941 study in the Lancet medical journal identified antispasmodic and uterine sedative properties in various extracts of raspberry leaf for a variety of animals, but little research has been performed since then (Burn, 1941). The research may seem old, but it was performed by J.H. Burn, M.D., professor of pharmacology at Oxford University, and was published as the lead article in an issue of the prestigious Lancet. The trial was inspired by the traditional use of the plant for female complaints. Researchers used several water-based extracts of the leaves of Rubus ideaus in a variety of animals, including cats, dogs, and rabbits. They conclude: “In the course of this work, we have found that a principle is present which causes relaxation of the muscle of the uterus when this is tonically contracted, and which diminishes the force and frequency of rhythmic contractions [in labor].” Although the authors refer to “a principle” responsible for the uterine sedative effect, they speculate that more than one constituent in the water extract may be responsible. Table 4 shows constituents in raspberry leaf with properties that may account for the observed activities, although these have not been specifically tested in women. Table 4 Constituents in Rubus ideaus leaf which may confer uterine sedative properties Antispasmodic benzaldehyde ethyl-acetate farnesol magnesium (about 100 mg/ounce) potassium (almost 400 mg/ounce) Muscle relaxant gallic acid Sedative benzaldehyde Source:
Beckstrom-Sternberg and Duke, 1994
Contemporary herbals have misinterpreted some of the findings of this trial to indicate that raspberry leaf will relax contracted uterine muscle, but promote tone in a relaxed muscle. This effect was seen only in the rabbit, not in the other animals tested, and only in the isolated rabbit uterus suspended in a water bath. Such conditions hardly resemble the normal human oral consumption of a tea. The researchers noted that the antispasmodic effect is predominant and that it increases with dose, and entitled their article “A principle...which relaxes uterine muscles.” They compared the pharmacological activities of the extract to that of tyramine, nicotine, and hydrastinine. The concentration of magnesium and potassium in raspberry leaf, both of which have antispasmodic properties, is within the range of oral therapeutic doses, an effect that may have been magnified because the extracts were given intravenously. The actions in Table 3, which shows some uses of raspberry leaf in the medicine of Native Americans, could all be attributed to antispasmodic effects. Contemporary herbalists typically give raspberry leaf throughout pregnancy, or during the last one or two trimesters. Benefits on the uterine muscle may be partly due to long term nutritional tonic effects from calcium, magnesium, and/or potassium. The supposed antispasmodic effects of the plant would appear to contraindicate its use near labor. It is possible, however, that mild antispasmodic effects, relative to the strength of the contractions of labor, may normalize erratic or inefficient contractions. Such effects would be consistent with the traditional Native American use to reduce pain in childbirth. Table 5 shows some of the minerals contained in an ounce of raspberry leaf. Strong decoctions of the leaf may be the best method to make larger amounts of the water-soluble minerals bioavailable. It is doubtful that small doses of the tincture would contain significant mineral content. The Physiomedicalist recommendation of an ounce of the leaf to a pint of boiling water produces a strong infusion or decoction. (Cook). Table 5 Mineral content of raspberry leaf (Rubus ideaus) (mg/ounce of dry leaf) Calcium 403 mg Chromium 0.04 Iron 3.3 Magnesium 106 Manganese 4.8 Potassium 446 Selenium 0.08
Source:
Pedersen, 1994
Rubus and fertility The manganese concentration, the amount in an ounce of the herb being about equal to the recommended dietary allowance for women, is unusually high for an herbal source, about twenty times the average of a sampling of fifteen common beverage teas (Pedersen; Beckstrom Steinberg and Duke, 1994), and may at least in part explain the traditional use of raspberry leaf for infertility. Manganese plays a role in so, many enzyme systems that its deficiency symptoms are very diverse. Current nutritional science says that gross manganese deficiency does not generally develop in humans unless it is deliberately withheld from the diet (Groff et al). However, manganese deficiency has been associated with reproductive disorders. Deficiencies have been associated with “compromised reproductive function” in animals (Groff et al), and infertility in cows has been related to insufficient manganese in overgrazed pastures (Hidiroglou; Barnouin et al). Neither manganese supplementation nor treatment with raspberry leaf preparations has been tested for efficacy in infertile humans. Some contemporary herbals state that a uterotonic alkaloid called fragrine is present in raspberry leaf. No such alkaloid appears in any of the standard chemical references on plant alkaloids, nor in standard references for constituents in raspberry leaf. Pennyroyal: potential toxicity Various species of American pennyroyal (Hedeoma spp.) have been used in the treatment of dysmenorrhea, and as emmenagogues and abortifacients, in the ethnomedicine of North American Indians and in the folk medicine of New England, New York, and the Hispanic Southwest (Beckstrom-Sternberg et al.; Janos; Meyer; Moore). No single constituent accounts for its effects — it contains at least five antispasmodic constituents, and six sedatives Most constituents are present in only small quantities, and may have no clinical effect in simple preparations of the whole plant. By concentration, the constituents pulegone and diosmin are most prominent. The use of pennyroyal oil as an abortifacient has led to the deaths of several women in the U.S., with at least 18 cases of moderate to severe poisoning appearing in the scientific literature (Anderson et. al.). The presumed constituent responsible is pulegone, the main constituent of the essential oil. Pulegone is transformed into hepatotoxic metabolites in the liver (Mizutani et al; Thomassen et al.). Anderson et al. reviewed all cases of hepatotoxicty in humans appearing in the scientific literature as of 1996, and concluded that a dose of 10 mL of penny-royal essential oil produced moderate to severe toxicity in humans. Hepatotoxicity may vary according to the size of the liver, the status of its glutathione antioxidant reserves, and the efficiency of the liver in transforming pulegone into the toxic metabolites. The authors did not identify a safe dose range. There
are no reports of toxicity in adults from
consumption of pennyroyal tea
(as opposed to the oil), the form most appropriate
for dysmenorrhea. One
scientific report showed a lack of abortifacient
effects in a pregnant
woman who consumed the tea during pregnancy
(Black). Even teas, however,
have caused death in infants who were given
penny-royal as a treatment
for colic (Bakerink et al). Presumably the smaller
size or immaturity of
the infant liver makes it susceptible to the
toxicity of even the small
amount of oil found in the tea. Although the plant has a long traditional use as a emmenagogue and antispasmodic, it is probably not an effective abortifacient, according to personal communications with contemporary professional herbalists. Women taking the oil in attempts to produce an abortion are rarely successful. This “abortifacient myth” associated with pennyroyal oil can produce deadly results if a woman, thinking that a little bit higher dose will produce the desired effect, raises the dose toward the toxic or fatal level. Pennyroyal oil is contraindicated for internal use. Even external use of the concentrated oil may present a hazard. Native Americans used a wash of the plant as an insect repellant, but the concentrated oil applied to the skin may produce fatal results, especially in a child or small pet. Absorption of pulegone through the skin killed a dog who was treated with the oil for fleas (Sedekum et al). Vomiting ensued within two hours and the dog died within forty-eight hours. Dang gui, dong quai Dang gui (Angelica sinensis), sometimes marketed as dong quai or tang kwei, is one of the most famous herbs in China, and may be used there more than any other. It appeared in the oldest book of Chinese herbalism, The Divine Husbandman’s Classic of the Materia Medica, around the first century C.E. Dang gui, using terminology from traditional Chinese medicine, builds Blood, and also moves Blood. The condition of stagnant Blood is described above, and dang gui is one of the primary herbs used to treat it in Chinese medicine. Stagnant Blood might include spasmodic pain such as that which accompanies menstrual cramps or arthritis. Dang gui has both analgesic and antispasmodic effects. Table 6 shows some of its constituents that may account for the observed clinical effects. Table 6 Some activities of constituents in dang gui (Angelica sinensis) Muscle relexant activity scopoletin Uterine sedative activity ferulic acid scopoletin Antispasmodic activity bergapten carvacrol ferulic-acid ligustilide scopoletin umbelliferone Analgesic activity
falcarindiol falcarinol ferulic-acid p-cymene scopoletin According to Foster and Chongxi, volatile constituents of dang gui relax smooth muscle, including the uterus. Non-volatile water soluble constituents stimulate uterine muscle. In China, dang gui is prepared in various ways that alter its properties by selecting these constituent fractions. Decoction removes the volatile constituents. Infusions on the other hand retain them. Sometimes sliced roots are sprinkled with alcohol (one part rice wine to ten parts of the root) and gently roasted. This may effectively extract the antispasmodic constituent scopoletin, which is soluble in hot alcohol, but not water. Scopoletin is also present in the antispasmodic Western Viburnum opulus and Viburnum prunifolium. Angelica archangelica, or Western angelica, has traditionally been used as an emmenagogue, but it contains almost no constituents in common with A. sinensis. It does not contain ferulic acid, butyldenaphthalide, or butylphthalide considered by Chinese researchers to be key antispasmodic constituents in A. sinensis (the other key constituent being ligustilide) (Foster and Chongxi). Of the four, A. archangelica contains only ligustilide. The Western plant lovage (Levisticum officinale), which has been used in (China as a dang gui substitute (Foster and Chongxi), contains ligustilide, butyldenaphthalide, and butylphthalide. Levisticum also contains five volatile antispasmodic constituents in common with A. archangelica. The blood-building properties of dang gui may be due to the presence of folic acid, Vitamin B12, and other B-vitamins. Dang gui is frequently combined with peony root (Paeonia lactiflora) (see below) and other herbs when treating menstrual cramps. The most famous women’ s tonic in China is the “four things decoction,” which combines equal parts of dang gui. peony root (Paeonia lactiflora), rehmannia (Rehmannia glutinosa), and ligusticum (Ligusticum sinensis). Peony root is described in detail below. Dang gui is a heating herb, and is not well-tolerated by individuals with signs of Heat in traditional Chinese terminology. Peony root Peony root (Paeonia lactiflora) is an important’ s women’s tonic in Chinese medicine. It is a primary treatment for menstrual cramps, and is often used in place of dang gui (see above) when heat signs are present and dang gui is contraindicated. It is also sometimes combined with dang gui to supplement and modify its activity. The chief constituent in peony root under investigation for pharmacological effects is paeoniflorin, which has been shown to have analgesic, muscle relaxant, antispasmodic, uterine sedative, and anti-inflammatory properties. {Picture 8} A simple
combination of peony and licorice (Glycyrrhiza
spp.), a traditional Chinese
formula, is approved for general use by physicians
as an antispasmodic
in Japan. The combination is best suited to spasms
that accompanies an
exhausted, deficient constitution, although it is
used in Kampo medicine
(contemporary Japanese medical herbalism) for
Deficiency, Excess, Heat,
and Cold conformations when severe spasm is
present. Its antispasmodic
effects are powerful enough that Chinese and
Japanese physicians prescribe
it not only for menstrual and digestive cramps but
for such severe spasms
as those that accompany gallstone and kidney stone
attacks.
Chinese and Japanese researchers have conducted dozens of trials, mostly in laboratory and animal trials, into the pharmacological properties of the suspected active constituents in the combination, paeoniflorin, glycyrrhizin, and glycyrrhetic acid. See for example Harada, 1969; Kimura et al, 1984; Kimura et al, 1985; Kobayashi et al, 1990; Takeuchi et al, 1989 and 1990; Tamaya et al, 1986; and Sugishita, 1984. The combination may lower testosterone levels via action on the ovary. Chinese peony root, the form used clinically for cramps in Asia, has the root bark removed, and is white with a pinkish cast to it. This form is generally not available through Western herb sources, and should be obtained through Chinese herb trade suppliers. References Anderson IB, Mullen WH, Meeker JE, Khojasteh-BakhtSC, et al. Pennyroyal toxicity: measurement of toxic metabolite levels in two cases and review of the literature. Ann Intern Med 1996 Apr 15;124(8):726-734 Anonymous. Personal communications, 1978-1997. Bakerink JA, Gospe SM Jr, Dimand RJ, Eldridge MW. Multiple organ failure after ingestion of pennyroyal oil from herbal tea in two infants. Pediatrics 1996 Nov;98(5):944-947 Barnouin J, Paccard P, Fayet JC, Brochart M, Bouvier A. Continuous ecopathological survey. 2. Typology of dairy cattle farms with high and low fertility. [Article in French] Ann Rech Vet 1983;14(3):253-264 Beckstrom-Sternberg, Stephen M., and James A. Duke. “The Phytochemical Database.” http://probe.nalusda.gov:8300/cgi-bin/browse/phytochemdb. (ACEDB version 4.3 - data version July 1994). Beckstrom-Sternberg, Stephen M., Daniel E. Moerman, and James A. Duke. “The Medicinal Plants of Native America Database.” http://probe.nalusda.gov:8300/cgi-bin/browse/mpnadb. (ACEDB version 4.3 - data version June 1995). Black DR. Pregnancy unaffected by pennyroyal usage. J Am Osteopath Assoc 1985 May;85(5):282 Burn JH and Withell ER. A principle in raspberry leaves which relaxes uterine muscles. Lancet 1941;2(6149):1-3 Cook, William H. The Physio-Medicalist Dispensatory. Cincinnati, Ohio: 1869 Duke, James A. 1992. Handbook of phytochemical constituents of GRAS herbs and other economic plants. Boca Raton, florida: CRC Press. Ellingwood, Finley. American Materia, Therapeutics and Pharmacology. Portland, Oregon: Eclectic Medical Publications, 1919 Felter,
Harvey. The Eclectic Materia Medica, Pharmacology,
and Therapeutics. Portland,
Oregon: Eclectic Medical Publications, 1922 Foster, Steven, and Chongxi, Yue. Herbal Emissaries: Bringing Chinese Herbs to the West. Rochester, Vermont: Healing Arts Press, 1992 Groff, J, Gropper S, Hunt S., Advanced Nutrition and Human Metabolism, Second Edition. Minneapolis/St Paul, Minnesota: West Publishing, 1995 Harada M. Pharmacological studies on herb paeony root. IV. Analysis of therapeutic effects of paeony-and licorice-containing frequent prescriptions in Chinese medicine and comparison with effects of experimental pharmacological tests. Yakugaku Zasshi 1969 Jul;89(7):899-908 Hidiroglou M. Trace element deficiencies and fertility in ruminants: a review. J Dairy Sci 1979 Aug;62(8):1195-1206 Hsu, Hong-Yen. Oriental Materia Medica: A Concise Guide. New Canaan, Connecticut: Keats Publishing, 1986 Janos, Elisabeth. Country Folk Remedies: Tales of Skunk Oil, Sassafras Tea and Other Old-Time Remedies Gathered by Elisabeth Janos. New York: Galahad Books, 1990 Kimura M, Kimura I, Takahashi K, Muroi M, Yoshizaki M, Kanaoka M, Kitagawa I. Blocking effects of blended paeoniflorin or its related compounds with glycyrrhizin on neuromuscular junctions in frog and mouse. Jpn J Pharmacol 1984 Nov;36(3):275-282 Kimura M, Kimura I, Nojima H. Depolarizing neuromuscular blocking action induced by electropharmacological coupling in the combined effect of paeoniflorin and glycyrrhizin. Jpn J Pharmacol 1985 Apr;37(4):395-399 Kobayashi M, Ueda C, Aoki S, Tajima K, Tanaka N, Yamahara J. Anticholinergic action of Paeony root and its active constituents. Yakugaku Zasshi 1990 Dec;110(12):964-968 Leung, Albert Y. Chinese Herbal Remedies. New York: Phaidon Universe, 1984. Mannliche, Lise An Ancient Egyptian Herbal. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, 1989 McGrath, William R. Amish Folk Remedies for Plain and Fancy Ailments. Burr Oak, Michigan: W. R. McGrath, 1985 Meyer, Clarence. American Folk Medicine. New York: New American Library, 1973 Mizutani T, Nomura H, Nakanishi K, Fujita S. Effects of drug metabolism modifiers on pulegone-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. Res Commun Chem Pathol Pharmacol 1987 Oct;58(1):75-83 Moore, Michael. Los Remedios: Traditional Herbal Remedies. Santa Fe, New Mexico: Red Crane Books, 1990 Pedersen, Mark. Nutritional Herbology: A Reference Guide to Herbs. Warsaw, Indiana: Wendell W. Whitman Company, 1994 Roeder, Beatrice A. Chicano Folk Medicine from Los Angeles, California. Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1988 Sudekum M, Poppenga RH, Raju N, Braselton WE Jr. Pennyroyal oil toxicosis in a dog. J Am Vet Med Assoc 1992 Mar 15;200(6):817-818 Sugishita
E, Amagaya S, Ogihara Y. Studies on the
combination of Glycyrrhizae Radix
in Shakuyakukanzo-To. J Pharmacobiodyn 1984
Jul;7(7):427-435
Takeuchi T, Nishii O, Okamura T, Yaginuma T. Effect of traditional herbal medicine, shakuyaku-kanzo-to on total and free serum testosterone levels. Am J Chin Med 1989;17(1-2):35-44 Takeuchi T, Nishii O, Okamura T, Yaginuma T. Effect of paeoniflorin, glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetic acid on ovarian androgen production. Am J Chin Med 1991;19(1):73-78 Tamaya T, Sato S, Okada HH. Possible mechanism of steroid action of the plant herb extracts glycyrrhizin, glycyrrhetinic acid, and paeoniflorin: inhibition by plant herb extracts of steroid protein binding in the rabbit. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1986 Nov;155(5):1134-1139 Thomassen D, Slattery JT, Nelson SD. Menthofuran-dependent and independent aspects of pulegone hepatotoxicity: roles of glutathione. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1990 May;253(2):567-572 Tyler, Varro. The Honest Herbal: A Sensible Guide to the Use of Herbs and Related Remedies. Third Edition. New York: Haworth Press, 1993 Weiss, Rudolf Fritz. Herbal Medicine. Beaconsfield, England: Beaconfield Publishers, 1988 [Translated from the German Lerhbuch der Phytotherapie, Sixth Edition. Stuttgart: Hippokrates Verlag, 1985] Table 2: Some
antispasmodic contsituents in traditional herbs
used for menstrual cramps
Ginger (Zingiber officinale) bornyl-acetate caffeic-acid camphor caryophyllene curcumin ethyl-acetate farnesol ferulic-acid geraniol limonene linalol
Cinnamon (Cimmanomum verum) benzaldehyde benzyl-benzoate borneol bornyl-acetate camphor caryophyllene cinnamaldehyde eugenol farnesol
geraniol limonene linalol linalyl-acetate mannitol myrcene
Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) apigenin borneol bornyl-acetate caffeic-acid camphor caryophyllene jaceidin parthenolide santamarine
Juniper berries (Juniperus communis) bornyl-acetate camphor caryophyllene limonene menthol myrcene
Chamomile (Chamomilla recutita) alpha-bisabolol apigenin borneol bornyl-acetate caffeic-acid chamazulene chrysosplenol farnesol geraniol isorhamnetin jaceidin luteolin patuletin thujone
umbelliferone
Basil (Ocimum basilicum) alpha-bisabolol anethole apigenin borneol caffeic-acid camphor caryophyllene eugenol farnesol geraniol limonene linalol linalyl-acetate luteolin menthol menthone myrcene thymol valeric-acid
Pennyroyal (Hedeoma pulegioides) caryophyllene limonene linalyl-acetate menthol myrcene
Yarrow (Achillea millefolium) apigenin borneol bornyl-acetate caffeic-acid camphor caryophyllene chamazulene eugenol
isorhamnetin limonene luteolin
mannitol menthol myrcene thujone |
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